Confucian influences are clearly found in the Shiji as nearly half of the personal comments included in the work refer to Confucius himself.[1] Sima Qian’s approach to history however showcases differences to the morally regimented style of Confucian chronicles which preceded him. The Shiji’s contradictory approach to morality creates a complex narrative in an attempt to create a universal history.[2] Sima Qian often deviates from Confucianism principles as a result. He often forgoes the concrete morals of Confucius by sympathising with historical figures that break rules in order to do the right thing.[3] This is best demonstrated in Shiji 9 which details the reign of Empress Lu. Whilst his description of Lu throughout this chapter depicts the Empress as a particularly cruel figure, the grand historian’s personal judgement paints a different picture.
He says, ‘…Empress Lu, though a woman ruling in the manner of an emperor, conducted the business of government without ever leaving her private chambers, and the world was at peace.’[4]
By presenting Empress Lu as a woman who brought peace to the world after the tumultuous period of the Warring States shows the level of respect Sima Qian had for the Empress. This can be illustrated when delving into Empress Lu’s inclusion into the 120 chapters that feature in the Shiji.[5] In this attempt at universal history, Sima Qian’s judgement is passed in a much subtler manner compared to that of Confucius. Grant Hardy discusses this concept of subtly by suggesting Sima Qian’s method of inclusion or exclusion, amongst manner other editing factors, can indicate the author’s view on these historical subjects.[6] The fact that basic annals mostly dedicated to male emperors and generals included Empress Lu shows the importance the author placed on her. Sima Qian does not attempt to grapple with what many Confucian historians would criticise as a change from the natural order of heaven but instead decides to record her reign in detail whilst also giving his own seal of approval. This is certainly the case when contrasted with other contemporary historians’ opinions of Empress Lu which Hans van Ess elaborates on when contrasting Sima Qian with Ban Gu.[7] The latter’s depiction of the empress is much more condemning when describing her deeds compared to what features in the Shiji. Whilst Sima Qian does not view Lu as perfect by any means, he still attests to her attributes which Confucian ideologies refused to do as explained by Ess when comparing Ban Gu’s biography.
This key difference demonstrates how Sima Qian’s philosophy was different to that of Confucianism. Whilst he recognises the taboo of a woman posessing as much power as Empress Lu did, Sima Qian still appreciates the virtues she held in her position and the effects it had on China. Instead of following on the dogmatic path which saw any empress dowager taking control as an omen, the Shiji takes a more complex approach by acknowledging the benefits of a figure like Empress Lu and how it actually effected the state. The grand historian’s judgement substantiates Lu as a ruler who allowed the world to be at peace. As a result, it shows that whilst Sima Qian clearly holds some apprehension toward Lu, he still acknowledges the impressive attributes and effect she had on China which Confucian scholars (like Ban Gu) do not cite at all. Therefore, this particular chapter shows how Sima Qian was less dogmatic in his approach to history compared to other Confucian chronicles.
[1] Grant Hardy, World of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian’s Conquest of History (Columbia, 1999) pp. 116
[2] Ibid 201
[3] Ibid 199
[4] Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China Vol 1, trans WM. Theodore, ed. Burton Watson (Columbia, 1971) pp. 340
[5] William H. Nienhauser Jr., ‘Sima Qian and the Shiji’ in Andrew Feldherr and Grant Hardy (eds.) The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600 (Oxford, 2011) pp. 469
[6] Hardy, Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo, pp. 130-5
[7] Hans van Ess, ‘Praise and Slander: The Evocation of Empress Lü in the Shiji and the Hanshu’ in NAN NÜ8, no.2 (1 January 2006): 250-4.